Action
Research: The term, ‘Action
research’ was first coined by Kurt Lewin, in about 1944, and it appears
in his 1946 paper "Action Research and Minority Problems". It is a
methodology that seeks transformative change through the simultaneous process
of taking action and conducting research. It emphasizes on a local problem
requiring immediate actions. Stephen Kemmis and Robin McTaggart (1988) developed a concept for
action research. They proposed a spiral model comprising four steps: Plan,
act, observe and reflect. According to them, action research is a series of cyclical
process of planning, acting, observing, reflecting and then re-planning in
light of the knowledge gained through the cycle.
Applied
Research: Research carried out for practical applications and
problem solving functions. It is a methodology used to solve a
specific, practical issue affecting an individual or group by the application of existing
scientific knowledge, such as technology or inventions. Action research is an
example of applied research used to solve everyday problems.
Basic Research: Research carried out to discover something simply for the sake of knowledge to
improve our understanding of the world, and for academic rather than commercial
purposes. However, in the long run, it can be the basis for many commercial
products and applied research. Basic research is also known as ‘Fundamental
Research’ or ‘Pure research’.
Cohort Studies: Examines different samples of a specific
sub-population or cohort (group of people) over a period of time to examine how
they may have changed during that period. Cohort studies, mainly used in
medical research, are a type of longitudinal study – an approach that follows
research participants (cohort) over a period of time to establish links between
risk factors and health outcomes.
Content Analysis: A quantitative research method used to analyze
the presence of certain words, themes, or concepts within a given text,
document or messages in a systematic and objective manner to measure and
compare their various characteristics.
Covert Observation: A particular type of participant observation in which the
researcher joins the group he/she intends to study and the identity of the
researcher, the nature of the research project, and the fact that participants
are being observed are concealed from those who are being studied.
Longitudinal study: Longitudinal study is an
observational research method in which data is gathered for the same
subjects repeatedly over a period of time. Longitudinal
research projects can extend over years or even decades. In
a longitudinal cohort study, the same individuals are observed
over the study period.
Population/Universe:
The entire group of people or items that the researcher wants to study.
Finite
Population: A population is said to be finite if
exact number of respondents in the population is known.
Infinite
Population: A population is said to be infinite if
the exact number of respondents in the population is not known.
Samples:
Samples are drawn from populations. The portion of the population, the
researcher select for the study.
Small
Sample: If the sample size n is less than 30 (n<30), it
is termed as small sample. In case of small sample, t-test is applied.
Large
Sample: If the sample size n is greater than 30 (n≥30) it
is known as large sample. In case of large sample, z-test is applied.
Parameter:
Fact about a population. Statistical values related to population are called
parameter.
Statistic:
Fact about a sample. Statistical values related to sample are called statistic.
Hypothesis:
A
tentative explanation based on theory to predict a causal relationship between
variables. It is an assumption which is yet to be tested. According to George Lundberg, “a
hypothesis is a tentative generalization, the validity of which remains to be
tested…?".
Null
Hypothesis: Null hypothesis states that there is no
difference between groups. The alternative
hypothesis states that there is some real difference between two or more
groups.
Research Variable: Any characteristic or trait that
can vary from one person to another (race, gender, academic major) or for one
person over time (age, political beliefs).
Dependent
Variable: The variable the researcher seeks to explain,
measure and observe – but cannot manipulate. In other words, a dependent
variable is what you measure in the experiment and what is affected during the
experiment.
Independent
variable: The variable that is systematically changed or
manipulated by the researcher, to observe the changes it makes on the dependent
variable. In a scientific experiment, you cannot have a dependent variable
without an independent variable. In
a questionnaire, questions on age, income and gender are examples of Independent variable.
Parametric
Tests: Parametric tests are used when we have information
about the population parameter or at least certain assumptions can be made
regarding the characteristics of the population.
Non-Parametric
Tests: Non-Parametric tests are used when the researcher has
no idea about the population parameter, neither he can make any assumptions
about the population.
Mean:
Also known as the ‘average’, it is the median of a set of values.
Median:
The mid-point of a set of values, when they are arranged in ascending or
descending order.
Mode:
The value that occurs most often in a distribution of values for a given
variable.
Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA): A statistical test that determines whether the means
of two or more groups are significantly different.
Supra: Supra (Latin for
"above") is an academic and
legal citation signal used when a writer desires to refer a reader to an
earlier-cited authority.
Ibid:
ibid. is an abbreviation for the
Latin word 'ibīdem', meaning ‘in the same place’, commonly used in a footnote,
endnote, bibliographic citation, or scholarly reference to refer to the source
cited in the preceding note or list item. When two consecutive notes come from the same place, the word ibid. is used for the second note. In
other words, ibid is used for referring to the same reference cited immediately
above.
Loc. cit.:
Loc.
cit. is a short for Latin term ‘loco citato’, meaning ‘in the place cited’ is
a footnote or endnote term used to repeat the title and
page number for a given work (and author). Loc. cit. is used when the reference is not
immediately proceeding, but refers to the same page.
Op. cit.: Op. cit. is an abbreviation of
the Latin phrase ‘opus
citato’, meaning ‘the work cited’. It is neither used to
repeat immediately preceding reference nor to refer to reference on the same
page but ‘refers to reference cited previously in the work’. Op. cit. should never
therefore be used on its own, which would be meaningless, but most often with the
author's surname or another brief clue as to which work is referred to.
Peer
Review: Evaluation of Scientific, academic and professional
work by one or more people with similar competences as the producers of the
work. It is a process by which a research publication is evaluated (before
publication) by a group of experts in the appropriate field.
Double-blind
review: Reviewer and author identities are concealed from
the reviewers and vice-versa.
Panel
Study: A longitudinal study in which a group of
individuals is interviewed at intervals over a period of time.
Axiom:
Derived from Greek language, axiom is
a statement widely accepted as truth, to serve as a premise or
starting point for further reasoning and arguments.
Focus
group: A qualitative data collection method using an
interview with a small group of people, all at one time, to explore ideas on a
particular topic. The goal of a focus group is to uncover additional
information through participants' exchange of ideas.
Literature
Review: It is a comprehensive survey of the research
literature on a topic. Generally the literature review is presented at the
beginning of a research paper and explains how the researcher arrived at his/her
research questions.
Research
Methodology: The principles, procedures, and
strategies of research used in a study for gathering information, analyzing
data, and drawing conclusions.
Research
Design: Research
design is the overall structure of a research project. It is a blueprint
that is followed in completing a study.
Pilot
Study: A preliminary trial of the study, or a mini study,
and should be performed before the final study.
Probability
Sampling: A random sample of a population, which ensures that
each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the
sample.
Non-Probability
Sampling: A sample where each member or unit in the study
population does not have an equal chance of being selected.
Qualitative Research: A field of social research that is carried out in
naturalistic settings and generates data largely through observations and
interviews. Compared to quantitative research, which is principally concerned
with making inferences from randomly selected samples to a larger population,
qualitative research is primarily focused on describing small samples in
non-statistical ways.
Inferences: A conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and
reasoning.
Snowball
Sample: Also known as referrals, the sample is made up of
referrals from subjects who identified other suitable subjects, usually in
areas that are difficult to conduct research in. In other words, this sampling
technique involves tracing rare sample through referrals from the already
identified members of the sample.
Quota
Sample: Quota sampling is a non-probabilistic sampling
method where the researchers divide the survey population into mutually
exclusive subgroups. These subgroups are selected with respect to certain
known features, traits, or interests. People in each subgroup are then selected
by the researcher by fixing a quota and thus the assembled sample has the same proportions
of individuals as the entire population with respect to known characteristics,
traits or focused phenomenon.
Purposive
Sample: It is a non-probability sample design in which the
researcher purposively or deliberately selects certain units of the universe to
form a sample that would represent the whole universe. In other words, it is a
sampling with a purpose. It is also known as deliberate sampling.
Cluster
Sample: Cluster sampling is a sampling method in which the
entire population of the study is divided into externally homogeneous but
internally heterogeneous groups called clusters. Ideally, each cluster is a
mini-representation of the entire population. After identifying the clusters, certain clusters are
chosen using simple random sampling as the sample of the proposed study.
Text
Recycling: Also referred to as ‘Self Plagiarism’,
is the reproduction of an author’s own text from a previous publication in a
new publication.
SELF CHECK EXERCISES
1. For referring to an earlier reference on the
same page, but not immediately preceding, which one is used?
A. Loc. cit.
B. Op. cit.
C. Ibid
D. Referred to above
2. The
t-test is applied when sample size is __.
A. Small
B. Big
C. Uncountable
D. Scattered
3. In
a questionnaire, questions on age, income and gender are examples of ____.
A. Dependent variable
B. Independent variable
C. Intervening variable
D. Manipulation variable
4. In
academic writings, ‘Supra’ denotes:
A. Above
B. Below
C. No Publisher is given
D. No Place is given
5. ‘Double-blind
review’ means ___.
A. Reviewer
and author identities are concealed from the reviewers and vice-versa
B. Review
is done two times
C. Only
Reviewer identity is concealed
D. Only
author identity is concealed
6. Who
stated that “a hypothesis is a tentative generalization, the validity of which
remains to be tested…?
A. Barr and Scates
B. George Lundberg
C. J. S. Mill
D. A.
P.V.
Young
7. In
doing action research what is the usual sequence of steps?
A. Reflect, observe, plan,
act
B. Plan, act, observe, reflect
C. Plan,
reflect, observe, act
D. Act, observe, plan, reflect
8. In
research, ‘Pilot study’ is needed to ___.
A. Select the topic/problem
B. Test
the instrument
C. Review
the literature
D. Compile the bibliography
9. In which of the following sampling techniques, does a researcher asks participants to identify other potential participants?
A. Snowball
B. Convenience
C. Purposive
D. Quota
10. In
which of the following studies, a researcher is required to examine some
specific sub-population, as they change with time?
A. Trend
Study
B. Cohort Study
C. Cross
Sectional Study
D. Panel
Study
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